Financial strategies of the Confederacy vs. Union governments economic choices

Financial strategies of the Confederacy vs. Union governments economic choices While explaining the economic reality of the Confederacy in times of the Civil War, some fundamentals on the financial strategies of the Confederate and Union governments must be considered.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Financial strategies of the Confederacy vs. Union governments’ economic choices specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the major points, which is to be taken into account, is the Confederacy’s inflation financing. Thus, one is to keep in mind that there is a direct interdependence between the economic strategies of the Confederacy and their military failure. On the other hand, effective financial choices of the Union are mostly associated with the so-called policy of combination. In other words, summing up loans, taxes and notes determined the success of Union governments’ military engagements. The Thesis Statement The analysis of the economic policy of the Confederacy in time s of the Civil War gives us an opportunity to understand how the government’s ability to secure resources to mobilize military forces influences the success of military engagement. The Body Raising Funds As The Government’s Most Important Step To Succeed As far as Southerners’ economic choices were mostly conditional, one can probably conclude that the major mistake of the Confederacy was that they failed in aggrandizement of federal power, when such opportunity was available. Taking into account the fact that the Confederate governments were mostly focused on states’ rights and slavery, one can suppose that their financial strategies were not static. It seems to be obvious that the government’s ability to raise funds, in order to support military strategies development as well as to reinforce administrative capabilities is extremely important for the war effort.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get you r first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Of course, political incentives cannot be neglected, as they also influence financial choices. The Economic Choices Of The Confederacy And The Union The political basis of the Confederacy and the Union concerning war financing gives us an opportunity to trace back the interdependence between economic choices and military outcomes. One of the most important issues, which cannot be ignored, is that â€Å"the key decision-makers on both sides knew each other well from previous experience in Washington; and the military and financial strategies that had been employed throughout the ante-bellum period were common knowledge† (Razaghian 2). In other words, one can make a conclusion that the economic policies of the both sides had to be somewhat similar. In reality, the assumption, however, does not make any sense. It is necessary to remember that the success of the Union can be explained by the government’s right decision to adopt long-term financial strategies. The Confederacy, in their turn, lost time in effortless contemplation. It is a well-known fact that the Confederate government decided to leverage tax power, when such actions were not already necessary. According to Razaghian, the major mistake of the Confederacy was that â€Å"they relied on loans and non-interest bearing notes† (3), while the success of the North can be explained by its government’s decision to collect taxes.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Financial strategies of the Confederacy vs. Union governments’ economic choices specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Importance Of The Key Political Interpretations Generally, there are many opinions on the reasons of the Confederacy’s failure. For instance, the viewpoint that â€Å"the Confederacy lost because of disagreements between Jeffersonian governors and an increasingly centralized r egime in Richmond† (Beringer et al. par. 2) is criticized by many historians, as the key political interpretations seems to be omitted. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation And Its Meaning Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation is also to be highlighted, as it increased the chances of Union military victory. Thus, one is to keep in mind that the impact of proclamation was mostly positive, as the Union gained the support of the masses, including the African-American population. Moreover, it should also be pointed out that the inhaitants of both unoccupied and occupied territories provided the North with support. The Demands Of The War So, taking into consideration the financial policies of the sides, one can conclude that taxation can be regarded as the most appropriate strategy to succeed. However, there is a need to state that the demands of the war must be controlled. In other words, as far as the demands can be changed, the government is to react immediately. Thus , new demands require new financial policies to be adopted. For the Confederacy, the understanding that taxes had to be increased came too late. Thus, one of the members of the Confederate government stated: â€Å"We have been compelled to issue a large quantity of Treasury notes, when, perhaps, it would have been more to the true interest of the country to have resorted at first to high taxation† (â€Å"Southern Historical Society Papers† 458-459).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Conclusion Finally, it is necessary to point out that irrational and short-term economic choices of the Confederacy led to their failure in the Civil War. Immediate mobilization of military resources and reconsideration of certain economic requirements, however, cannot be regarded to be saving, as the North’s resources were more powerful. If the Confederate governments relied on taxation in time, the only effect they could achieve is to limit the resources of the North; although military success could not been gained anyway. It is the interdependence between political incentives and economic choices, which is of primary importance; as the incentives determine military outcomes. Beringer, Richard, Herman, Hattaway, Archer, Jones and William N. Still, Jr. Why the  South Lost the Civil War. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1986. Print. Razaghian, Rose. Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy’s Financial Strategy,  2004. â€Å"Southern Historical Society Papers.† New Number Series, 13 (1958):51. Print.

Important Dangers of Ordering a Fake High School Diploma

Important Dangers of Ordering a Fake High School Diploma SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Fake high school diplomas are definitely out there. Whether you're thinking about purchasing one or doing your utmost to avoid ending up with just such a phony document, pause a moment and read this article. We'll cover reasons why a person might get a fake diploma, whether it's legal to get one, and how to make sure any document you obtain is the real deal, not a fake. Why Do People Get Fake High School Diplomas? There are a few reasons a person might look into getting a fake diploma. Some reasons are perfectly innocent, and some are more devious. However, even the supposedly innocent reasons have a somewhat fishy feeling to them- it seems very odd, for instance, that someone would invest a few hundred dollars in a very realistic-looking replica diploma intended only as a practical joke prop. Dishonest Reasons Dishonest reasons include submitting a fake high school diploma to convince a school or potential employer that you have credentials you never earned. This is the primary reason you'd need such an exactly convincing version of of diploma. It's hard to imagine why you would need to dupe people so entirely unless you honestly wanted them to believe that the document was official. Practical Reasons Many sites offering fake diplomas point out that high school diplomas are relatively likely to get lost and relatively difficult to replace. (If you're in this boat, read our guide to replacing a missing diploma.) The idea is, then, that a substitute might be a nice thing to have and to hand down to future generations. There's some logic to this argument, and yet it seems odd to hand down a fake diploma; I struggle to understand why future generations would be so attached to a stand-in document in place of simply knowing the true story of how Grandpa Bill lost his diploma from such-and-such a high school. Just-for-Fun Reasons There are all sorts of practical jokes a person could play with a fake diploma- not to mention straight-up teasing. One online figure mentioned getting a fake diploma for his dog. The question, then, becomes why you would need a document of such high (deceptive) quality; does Fido really need a seal produced with the precise embossing style that colleges use? I say no. He's sad because his diploma isn't 100% realistic. What Can You Do With a Fake High School Diploma? High school diplomas serve as a way to prove to the world that you completed your high school education with passing grades. Most of the time, you're trying to satisfy a college or an employer about your educational background; schools and businesses want to know that you have the level of education they require of their students or employees. This is where we circle back to the dishonest reasons for getting a fake diploma listed above; with a phony document, a person may be able to garner an acceptance to a college or business that would not otherwise have been offered. The story typically doesn't conclude with a happy ending, though, as we will see in the following section. What Can Happen If You Get a Fake Diploma? For one thing, it's extremely likely that you'll be discovered. In most cases, a simple phone call from the college or business to the school from which you allegedly graduated is enough to undermine your plans. Plus, organizations like schools and background check companies keep tabs on illegitimate diploma operations, updating their databases frequently. Discovery means loss of any position you may have gained with the aid of your fake diploma- at best. It can mean prosecution and conviction at worst. Are Fake Diplomas Legal or Illegal? Fake diplomas occupy a legal gray area. Laws are not stringent on this particular issue, and the exact strictness of laws varies somewhat by state. The actual production or ownership of a fake diploma is apparently not illegal if it's not technically a forgery of an actual document (for example, a replica of a Harvard diploma). Using a fake diploma to gain goods or a position you would otherwise not have access to is considered fraud, however, and can be legally prosecuted. Plus, if you're performing services you're not qualified to perform under the cover of your fake diploma, that's a big legal problem- especially if anyone suffers harm as a result. GUILTY. How to Get a Legitimate High School Diploma First and foremost, getting a high school diploma requires time and work. There's no way to get a valid diploma without completing a number of graduation requirements. There are several options for students wishing to put in the necessary work to get a high school diploma. You can, of course, attend a traditional high school. Your local school district is always a great place to start exploring that option. There's also night school, which usually intended for students who need to make up a few credits, not those wishing to start and finish their high school careers there. There are alternative high schools, too, which are structurally like your average high school but have their totally non-traditional methods. There's also the online option. Online high schools are becoming more popular these days; they basically entail getting curriculum from an online source and turning assignments in remotely. Typically, there are lectures or discussions to attend via chat or video conference. In some cases, you may want to think about the GED, which is primarily intended for students no longer enrolled in high school who have not earned their high school diplomas, though there are other circumstances where the GED might make the best sense. You can learn more about the GED and how to get a GED online through other articles on our blog. Don't you mostly just want to wear that funny hat, though? How to Make Sure the Diploma You're Getting Is Real If you're thinking of buying a diploma online, you're most likely more interested in the online mode of schooling, so these tips will focus primarily on identifying legitimate online institutions. Traits of a Legitimate Online High School Online high schools need accreditation, unless they happen to be run by a specific school district or through the state. This is a hugely important quality to check up on; accreditation is absolutely essential. You can check with your state's department of education or attorney general to see if an online program is accredited or otherwise approved. Also check out our own article explaining accredited online programs. While reviews are not 100% reliable, do check what reviewers have to say. Also, look up the online program you're considering with the Better Business Bureau. A legitimate online high school should have reasonable reviews; not everyone may be in love with the school, but if there are a lot of accusations of illegitimacy, it's something to be concerned about. Call a well-respected college and see if they would accept a diploma from the program you're looking at. If they would, that's a good sign you're on the right path; if they wouldn't, keep searching. Warning Signs of a Fake Online High School Fake online schools often charge a flat fee for a degree program, rather than charging by class or credit. Fake online schools frequently charge for the diploma itself, in addition to or instead of classes. Fake online schools may entail little or no coursework and promise little to no interaction with teachers. Some promise degrees based solely off of life experience with no classes required. Fake online schools may promise you a degree in a very short amount of time- months, weeks, or just days. The address (not just the mailing address, but the actual address of the school) may be shown as a P.O. Box rather than a physical location. The name of the school may be a knock-off of a legitimate institution. Also, some schools will maintain a cheap-looking website full of typos as well as a well-groomed and professional website, just so that you'll assume the well-groomed website must be legitimate. Look at this beautiful website! How could it possibly be unreliable? Conclusion The moral of the story here is that fake high school diplomas are, overall, not good things. They may be technically legal in some cases, and some people use them for innocent reasons, but mostly they're fraudulent and put to fraudulent use. There are ways to make sure that any program you're enrolling in is the real deal, so make sure you do your homework. Don't get stuck with a fake high school diploma: it's not worth it. What's Next? Are you wondering whether online high school is right for you? Before you make any commitments, read our articles on the pros and cons of that set-up and whether or not you need a high school diploma in the first place. If you do decide to go with an online high school, read about how to make sure you're getting the best experience possible. Another thing to consider is whether you might want to get your GED. Find out what this means and why you might want one in our article on that very credential. We also cover how to take the GED online and the best GED practice tests here. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Annotated Bibliography Example llows analyzing the behavior of a patient from several aspects and suggests pilot randomizes control trail as the method to control the severity of the disease. The source provides an understanding about individual and collective behavior of people facing through Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. The condition of the patient mentioned in the paper relates to the cases analyzed in the paper therefore, this source can be useful to assess the behavioral of the patient. As the source studies the behavior of the patient and allows understanding distress and anxiety situations it can be used to determine the actual fact and severity of the disease; As the patient facing through dementia exhibits behavioral deficit that can cause families and spouse to face social distress, therefore the source is important to analyze the behavior, causes, symptoms and methods to cure the disease. The source is a research paper analyzing the signs and symptom of dementia and its behavioral and neuropsychological aspects. It further relates the disease with the frontal lobe feature and its effects on the behavior of the patient. The data included in the study of behavior and psychological signs and symptoms of disease. The source can be useful to determine the behavioral and psychological aspects of the patient. There are several phases mentioned in the paper with the variance to the behavior and psychological aspects that can be used to analyze the severity of the disease in the case. The source further aims to relate different behaviors subjected to severity and intensity of dementia. In addition, the source aims to emphasis the frontal lobe symptoms to relate with the cognitive deficits with the increasing severity and frequency of aggressive, depressive and psychosis symptom. The patient mentioned in the case has the problems of hypertension, aggression, anxiety and depres sion. This source can analyze the severity of the disease further it provides an understanding about the

Universal packaging design Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Universal packaging design - Case Study Example In business, universal packaging design is a framework in which product packaging in a way that captures a wide range of people and circumstances without any special features (Lidwell, William, Kritina Holden, Jill Butler, and Kimberly Elam, 26).For instance, a counter with a universal design will have manifold heights- a standard height for taller people and a shorter height for short people. Universals designs must follow certain principles that define it. They include:1. Equitable use The design has to meet the needs of people with different abilities. It must be equally usable to all users: Identical whenever possible and offer equivalence in utility where it is not identical. It should not segregate or stigmatize any users Must avail specifications of privacy, safety, and security to the all users The design must be appealing to all users.2. Flexible to users The design should accommodate different individual abilities and preferences. The user should be free to make a choice on the methods of use. Right and left-handed persons should also be accommodated The equipments should be able to facilitate accuracy and precision for the user The design should provide room for the users to adapt to any change that may occur.3. Simple and intuitive to use The design should be simple to understand. The experience of the user on its use does not matter. The user’s knowledge, language, skills, or current level of concentration should not matter in the ease to use design. The design should have the ability to eliminate unnecessary complexity It should accommodate different literacy levels and skills. The design should a sequential effect on items according to their level of importance The systems should provide effective feedback during and after the completion of the task 4. Perceptible information The design should communicate information to the user where necessary without special sensory abilities form the user. It uses pictorial, verbal and tactile modes for the redundant presentation of essential information. It should provide sufficient contrast between essential information and its surroundings Essential information should have maximum legibility The readers hold is able to describe different elements i.e. it should make easy for the user to give instructions and directions The design should compatible with a variety of designs or devices used by user with sensory limitations. 5. Tolerance of error The designs should minimize on hazards and adverse consequences of intended and unintended actions Arranges elements to minimize hazards and errors in a way the is understandable to all users. Categories such as, most used elements, hazardous elements eliminated, isolated, or shielded are applicable. Provides warnings of possible hazards and errors that can occur on the instrument or device It provided fail-safe features of the model to the user It should direct the user to avoid unconscious actions in tasks that require vigilance and att entiveness. 6. Low physical effort Users should not use a lot of energy when using the design. There should efficiency and comfort with the most minimum fatigue User should be able to maintain a neutral position of the body when using the design The user should use reasonable operating forces Repetitive actions should be minimal Sustained physical efforts should be minimal 7. Size and space approach of use The size and space approach of a design is the extent to which the use can reach, manipulate, and use the design regardless of their body size, posture or mobility. The design should allow the user to do all that without strain. It should be adjustable to allow users of all body sizes to use it. Important elements must be clearly seen by any sitting or standing user The users should be able to comfortably reach all of the components they need during operations It should accommodate any variations in hand and grip size Space for assistive or personal devices for users should be acc ommodated through sufficient space.

History and Archives Essay Example for Free

History and Archives Essay She was born in Moscow, Russia and spent all her childhood and most of her young years in the Soviet Union. She went to school in Moscow from 1973 to 1983, for 10 years. At school she was very interested in history especially in ancient history. She loved to read books about history of Egypt, Italy and Mexico and also started to develop an interest in how the people live in different countries and why they all are different in some ways and the same in other ways. During her childhood every summer she went to different camps, where she met new people from different republics (that now after the crash of the USSR they are all different countries. In 1983 she was admitted to Moscow Order of Honor State University of History and Archives. She was there for 6 years and received a Diploma for Master of History and Archival Science. While at the University she witnessed the last years of the Great Empire of the Soviet Union and its Collapse. She saw how people started to change when their lives were drastically changed by Perestroika. She saw how families collapsed under the strains of a new social and economic system which imposed new financial hardship and drastic even overnight changes in societal norms. She saw how children from those families reacted to escalating divorce rates and how their lives changed for the worse. Deep interest in history and cultures of different countries led her to explore on human behavior, their similarities and differences. †¢ Having grown up in a totalitarian system and experiencing the perceived freedoms we enjoy here, she have an appreciation for issues related to how human beings deal with different pressures and expectations. †¢ In the time that she was with people from other cultural backgrounds, she developed a great appreciation for the differences in cultural traditions and social behavior. †¢ She pursued this interest and took up a master’s course in History and Archival Science. †¢ As she witnessed the tragic collapse of her nation, she saw how society as a whole abandoned the notion of Social responsibility and any feelings of obligation to others that were mandated by the government at one time were replaced with a vacuum that left many in search of a new vision of their place in society. †¢ She observed how people react when their dreams and expectations taste the bitterness of reality and adjust to changes and stress and most of the times take up the negative route and enter into alcoholism, drug abuse, prostitution, felony. Personality The collapse of society happened almost overnight. It was shocking to her that the transformation of millions within such a short time, and to the extent of that transformation. Unfortunately it did not getting better; in fact it started to affect her. She now faced to adapt to her changing environment after adhering so closely to my traditional beliefs of honor and respect. Later she adapted to a new marriage and followed her spouse to the US. The move to the US was a very drastic change for her at that time. A totally different country, traditions, language and social norms. She had some difficult time in adjusting and understanding that country. Yet another adaptation was required of her. Her daughter was born and once again she was entering a different world with no guidance. She found her â€Å"loving† husband of 20 years cheating on her with another woman. This was not what she expected in the least. Her life made no sense. Her beliefs that were honed for so many years were critically tasked. This new information made the pathways in her brain over taxed. This was not what she could accept. But she had too. There was no other reality. Still it took her years to grasp with that reality. Much as others deal with change she had trouble. It was her dispassionate belief that with coaching, that people could deal with a fast changing environment, including a new economic and social reality. She ended with a divorce. She then even had to adjust and live with the situation when her little girl was taken from her based on fraudulent allegations that swayed a person (one of many) who was the judge. Her heart was cut; she was drowning in ocean of emotions, and ones again in her life for the purpose to survive. †¢ After the collapse of her nation, she began reading books on psychology, philosophy and religion, in order to adjust to the drastic change and realized that adaptation was the greatest tool that humans possessed. †¢ For the purpose of dealing with the new challenges confronting her after the birth of her daughter, she began to educate herself through reading in order to learn more about the child development and psychology. †¢ When she found her husband cheating on her, she could not accept it. But she had too. There was no other reality. She took years to grasp with that reality. She faced troubles initially but dispassionately believed that with coaching, that people can deal with a fast changing environment, including a new economic and social reality. †¢ To get through her divorce, she returned to reading books on psychology and started to speak with counselors and therapists. She learned an incredible amount of practical applications of behavioral and cognitive tools she could use to adapt to this latest crisis. By reading and learning more she developed the desire to help and support people who face change and find it hard to adapt. She learnt enough to allow her to make a greater impact on how to teach people from an early age to handle change and look for ways to adapt that benefit society has a whole. She realized that her way, she and many others can adapt to new environmental stresses can and must be influenced by people who can motivate people who can show them how to deal with situations that were never expected. Whether it is dealing with a Cultural Revolution, and actual revolution, a great upheaval, a great loss, or a custody battle in a divorce or more recently fuel prices that will effect the poor’s heating in Northern states, peoples’ financial stresses; people need to have help in guiding them through these transitions, and she wanted to make a difference in this way. She understood how different people are and how the behaviors of various groups are allowed to flourish. This dichotomy intrigued her as it would seem that a healthy society had to strike for some balance. She loved to explore the issue at greater length and have some guidance in understanding socio-psychological issues. She was not so much interested in pathology as she was in theoretical psychology of social norms and patterns along with how to setup systems to manage the needs of individuals along with the pressures of societal needs and peaceful coexistence. She wished to use adaptation tool to grow as a person. She looked for something to help her on this journey and I thought a respected school and her desire together could be used to help other’s who have undergone serious social stresses in life, while maintaining a positive social framework in which they can function. In this way she was on her way to growth. References Pavlov, â€Å"Conditioned Reflex† (1903), [Internet], Available at http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl. html, Accessed on: 3 August 2009 Skinner,† The Behavior of Organism† (1936), [Internet], Available athttp://www. pbs. org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhskin. html, Accessed: on 3 August 2009

Innocence Is Bliss in OConnors Short Stories Essay -- Literary Analy

There’s is no freedom from the post-lapsarian world. The attributes of this fallen world are very prominent in O’Connor’s short stories. However, she chooses not to include all of her characters into this nutshell. Instead, she gives her female characters innocence and monist ideals. Ironically, O’Connor isolates them from the rest and gives them a pitiful image as she goes on to mock their ways. The obliviousness and innocence of the characters is effortlessly destroyed in the post-lapsarian world because of their lack of foundation. O’Connor centers her stories on the attributes of the post-lapsarian world, which is the world after the â€Å"Forbidden Fruit† was eaten in the Garden of Eden. The fact that these stories were written soon after WWI also obstructed their outcome. The carnage of the war exemplifies the malevolent nature of O’Connor’s characters. For instance, in her story: â€Å"The Misfit,† a mass slaughter of an entire family occurs. After killing the last family member, The Misfit tells his assistant: â€Å"Take her off and throw her where you threw the others,† (O’Connor 22). The Misfit doesn’t bother looking back at the massacre he had just executed. This is a manner of establishing that such cruel and spiteful actions take place only in the evil of the post-laspsarian world. Likewise, in â€Å"A Circle in the Fire,† three boys take the liberty of allowing themselves to Mrs. Cope’s farm with no intentions of leaving. Not only does Mrs. Cope welcome the boys, she is also very hospitable towards them. Yet, the malicious and ill-mannered actions of these boys force Mrs. Cope feel obliged to them to leave. In response to the insult of being asked to leave, they decide to incinerate her farm. O’Connor creates these charac... ...ld beyond their homes. The characters learn the hard way that there is no escaping reality, especially since they are parts of it. This enlightening is why their blissfully happy lives have to be terminated. Works Cited 1. O'Connor, Flannery. A Good Man Is Hard to Find and Other Stories. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977. Print. 2. Schaum, Melita. ""Erasing Angel": The Lucifer-Trickster Figure in Flannery O'Connor's Short Fiction." The Southern Literary Journal 33.1. Department of English of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000. Web. 12 July 2010. . 3. Sparrow, Stephen. "The Innocents of Flannery O'Connor." Flannery O'Connor: Comforts of Home, The Flannery O'Connor. N.p., 22 July 2002. Web. 12 Oct. 2010. .

Matteo Ricci

The year 1982 was a ‘Ricci-year’: scholarly meetings in different places around the world, from Chicago (US), over Macerata (Italy) to Taibei (Taiwan), commemorated Matteo Ricci’s entry in China. It was exactly four hundred years since his arrival in the Portuguese settlement of Macao in 1582 and his entry into the mainland one year later. In 2001, there were new celebrations of Ricci, in Hong Kong and in Beijing, commemorating his definitive settling in Beijing in 1601. The year 2010 is again a ‘Ricci-year’, this time commemorating his death in Beijing in 1610.Is there anything new to be said about Matteo Ricci after this time-lapse of twenty-seven years, which corresponds to the period of Ricci’s own ascent to and settling in Beijing? Well, his writings have become more accessible to the academic and wider community: for instance, in Chinese there are now readily available editions of his Chinese writings and several translations of his Della entrata della Compagnia di Giesu e Christianita nella Cina (‘About the Christian expedition to China undertaken by the Society of Jesus’) – a strong contrast to the prudent two-page article in Renmin huabao(‘China Pictorial’) of July 1982.But publications not only flourished in Chinese. The Ruggieri-Ricci manuscript of the Portuguese-Chinese dictionary was published for the first time; Ricci’s letters and the Italian version of Della entratawere reprinted (2000-2001)[1]; others works have been translated: the catechism Tianzhu shiyi (‘The True Meaning of God’) into English, Japanese, Korean and Italian; the treatise on friendship Jiaoyoulun into Italian, German, and French; the treatise on mnemotechnics (the art of memory), Xiguo jifa into German.There were numerous secondary sources: at least 200 articles, many of them in Chinese, illuminate various aspects of his life and works. The most well-known work is possibly Jonathan Spe nce’s Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (1984), also translated into Chinese (two translations), French, Spanish and Dutch. [2] All this is very impressive and underscores the fact that Ricci remains an attractive figure both on the academic and the more popular level.Yet a close look at these writings reveals in particular the excellence of research accomplished earlier: the quality of Pasquale d’Elia’s annotated edition of the primary sources (Fonti Ricciane, 3 vols. , 1942-1949)[3] and the analysis of the method of evangelisation by d’Elia’s student Johannes Bettray (Die Akkommodationsmethode des P. Matteo Ricci S. I. in China, 1955)[4] is rarely matched today. Since these writings are in Italian and German respectively, they have unfortunately often been neglected.Compared to these writings, recent publications rarely bring to light new elements about Ricci himself, they rather nuance Ricci’s ‘success story’ by putting his accom plishments and writings in a broader context. For instance, it appears that Ricci was less accommodative than often assumed,[5] and that fellow Jesuits such as Niccolo Longobardo (1565-1655) had a better knowledge of the Chinese Classics and the Neo-Confucian commentaries than Ricci himself. How then to tell Ricci's story in the year 2010?One major development in recent years is the historiography of the contacts between cultures, with a primary question of the perspective from which one needs to look at the missionary: from his own perspective or from the perspective of the receiving culture? Taking benefit from these developments, this article will reread Ricci's story and ask how Ricci was shaped by the other, especially by the Chinese. [6] Four characteristics of Jesuit missionary strategy in China As a starting point one can make a first – rather traditional – reading of Ricci’s life by focusing on the missionary himself.The ‘Jesuit missionary strateg y’ in China was conceived by Alessandro Valignano (1539-1606), who was the former novice master of Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and who was Jesuit visitor for East Asia during the period 1574-1606. His strategy was creatively put into practice by Matteo Ricci. Later generations, well into the eighteenth century, associated this strategy with Ricci and called it the ‘Ricci-method’. It can be described by four major characteristics[7]: 1. A policy of accommodation or adaptation to Chinese culture. 8] Valignano, who had been disappointed by the limited degree of the Jesuits’ adaptation to Japanese culture, insisted in the first place on knowledge of the Chinese language. Therefore he called a few Jesuits to Macao in 1579 ordering them to focus their attention entirely on the study of language (fellow Jesuits criticised them for spending all their time studying Chinese). Two years later Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) entered China through the south, and Matteo Ricci followed one year later. Probably inspired by the Japanese situation, they dressed like Buddhist monks. In 1595, after nearly fifteen ears of experience, they changed this policy and adapted themselves to the life-style and etiquette of the Confucian elite of literati and officials. Ricci was responsible for this change. This new policy remained unchanged throughout the whole seventeenth century and for most Jesuit missionaries Matteo Ricci became the reference point with regard to the accommodation policy. 2. Propagation and evangelisation ‘from the top down’. Jesuits addressed themselves to the literate elite. The underlying idea was that if this elite, preferably the Emperor and his court, were converted, the whole country would be won for Christianity.The elite consisted mainly of literati, who had spent many years of their life preparing for the examinations they needed to pass to become officials. For these examinations they had to learn the Confucian classics an d the commentaries. After having passed the Metropolitan examinations, which took place in Beijing every three years and at which about three hundred candidates were selected, they entered the official bureaucracy and received appointments as district magistrates or positions in the ministries.As in modern diplomatic service, the offices usually changed every three years. In order to enter into contact with this elite, Ricci studied the Confucian classics and, with his remarkable gift of memory, became a welcome guest at the philosophical discussion groups that were organised by this elite. 3. Indirect propagation of the faith by using European science and technology in order to attract the attention of the educated Chinese and convince them of the high level of European civilisation.Ricci offered a European clock to the Emperor, he introduced paintings which impressed the Chinese with their use of perspective, translated mathematical writings of Euclid with the commentaries of the famous Jesuit mathematician Christophorus Clavius (1538-1612), and printed an enormous global map which integrated the results of the latest world explorations. By these activities Ricci established friendly relationships which sometimes resulted in the conversion of members of the elite: Xu Guangqi (1562-1633; baptised as Paul in 1603) and Li Zhizao (1565-1630; baptised as Leo in 1610) are the most famous of Ricci's time. . Openness to and tolerance of Chinese values. In China, Matteo Ricci encountered a society with high moral values, for which he expressed his admiration. Educated in the best Jesuit humanistic tradition, he favourably compared Confucius (552-479 BC) with ‘an other Seneca’ and the Confucians with ‘a sect of Epicurians, not in name, but in their laws and opinions’. [9] Ricci was of the opinion that the excellent ethical and social doctrine of Confucianism should be complemented with the metaphysical ideas of Christianity.However, he reject ed Buddhism, Taoism, and Neo-Confucianism, which in his eyes was corrupted by Buddhism. Ricci pleaded for a return to original Confucianism, which he considered to be a philosophy based on natural law. In his opinion it contained the idea of God. Finally, he adopted a tolerant attitude towards certain Confucian rites, such as the ancestral worship and the veneration of Confucius, which soon were labelled ‘civil rites’. Methodological questions There are several reasons why these four characteristics can rightly be identified as typical for Ricci and his fellow-Jesuits in a broader sense.First of all, one can easily find a justification for them in the Jesuit official documents of Ignatian inspiration, especially the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus and Ignatius’s Spiritual Exercises, which often insist on accommodation. Secondly, one can contrast these policies with those adopted by the contemporary Franciscans and Dominicans. These orders appeared less acco mmodative, less elite-oriented, less involved with sciences, and, lastly, less tolerant towards local ritual traditions.Finally, in publications about Jesuits in China in modern times, both by Jesuits and non-Jesuits, these elements are in one way or another presented as ‘typically Ricci’ or as ‘typically Jesuit’. There are also several reasons why these characteristics of strategy can be questioned. First, it can be questioned whether it is a ‘Jesuit’ strategy. Here, the comparison with the mission in Japan is quite determining. The first thirty years of Jesuit mission in Japan show quite a different picture, since before Valignano's arrival the accommodation policy was very restricted.Thus the actual strategy was determined to a large extent by the inspiration of an individual such as Valignano rather than by a common ‘Jesuit’ formation or training. A second problem with ‘strategy’ is that it seems to refer to a pre- set and well-thought policy that was consistently executed over time. Yet, some scholars have convincingly argued that Ricci himself ‘had not formed a precise opinion on the problem of evangelisation in China and that his judgment concerning the means and methods to adopt in order to convert the Chinese varied in the course of the years he spent on this task. [10] Thus the systematic labelling of any action as issuing from a ‘Ricci-method’ is probably an overestimation. Thus, while these four characteristics of the Jesuit strategy in China are certainly not invalid, they possibly present only one side of the story. The major methodological objection that can be raised is that an identity is not only formed through the isolated effort of the Self, but is shaped through constant interaction with the Other. This is true for individuals, but also for groups.Therefore, what we call the Jesuit missionary strategy in China is not only the result of a conscious and well-d efined policy conceived by Valignano and the proactive and creative elaboration of it by missionaries like Matteo Ricci. To a large extent, it is also the result of their reaction to what China was and who the Chinese were. In other words, their identity was shaped by the Chinese Otheras well. If Ricci became who he became, it was also because the Other encouraged him actively or passively to become like that.Thus the story should not only be told from the perspective of the missionary (Ricci), but also from the perspective of the receiving community (the Chinese). I will therefore review the four different characteristics and try to demonstrate how the Chinese ‘Other’ helped shape the Jesuit mission. I will bring into the picture the results of recent research on Christianity in late Ming China. These results have often been obtained by focusing on the point of view of the Chinese, ‘the Other’, and by taking the Chinese texts as primary source for research . Shaped by the Other 1.Accommodation to Chinese culture. The most obvious example of the interference of the Other in the field of accommodation is the change from a policy of adaptation to Buddhism to a policy of adaptation to Confucianism (and subsequently the rejection of Buddhism). The Other was already present in the original decision to adopt the Buddhist dress, since it was the Governor of Guangdong who either insisted that this was the way the missionaries should dress, or who approved the proposal of Michele Ruggieri to do so. [11] The accommodation to the Buddhist life-style was not without advantages.It enabled the Jesuits to make contact with the majority of the Chinese population more easily and allowed them to focus conversation directly on religious matters. But there were also disadvantages. From a Confucian perspective, Buddhism and Christianity shared many religious elements and were very similar to each other. Both can be classified as an institutional religion w ith a system of theology, rituals and organisation of its own, independent of so-called secular institutions. Confucianism, on the other hand, resembles a diffused religion.Its theology, rituals, and organisation were intrinsically tied up with the concepts and structures of secular institutions and the secular social order. [12] Moreover, Christianity shared elements with Buddhism such as belief in afterlife, the idea of heaven and hell, the practice of celibacy, etc. which were very un-Confucian. From Ricci's Della entrata and later apologetic works one can observe that precisely this similarity to the Other (the Buddhists) forced the Jesuits to dissociate themselves from the Other and emphasise their differences.The first (unconscious) reason for this change was that within the Chinese religious context there was too much competition between Buddhism and Christianity. Jesuits were in fact subjected to the phenomenon of ‘inflated difference’: i. e. the phenomenon in w hich a minority group, pressed to consolidate its own identity, is prone to dis-identify with others and to play up otherwise negligible differences between those inside and those outside its boundaries. [13] The only way to dissociate themselves from the Buddhist monks (who were considered to be very low on the social ladder) was to turn to Confucianism.In fact, it was the Other represented by Confucian literati such as Qu Taisu (Qu Rukui) (b. 1549) who encouraged Ricci to institute this change. [14] Here a second important element in which the Other determines the Self needs to be mentioned. It was labelled ‘cultural imperative’ by Erik Zurcher, and belongs to the deep structure in Chinese religious life in late imperial China. [15] No marginal religion penetrating from the outside could expect to take root in China (at least at a high social level) unless it conformed to a pattern that in late imperial times was more clearly defined than ever.Confucianism represented what is zheng (‘orthodox’) in a religious, ritual, social and political sense. In order not to be branded as xie (‘heterodox’) and be treated as a subversive sect, a marginal religion had to prove that it was on the side of zheng. The authority of Confucianism, and its sheer mass and attractive power, were such that any religious system from outside was caught in its field, and was bound to gravitate towards that centre. These two elements, inflated difference and cultural imperative, show the heavy influence of the Other in Ricci's strategy of accommodation.The Chinese made Ricci adapt to the particular Chinese situation. One may also point out that the refinement and sophistication of the Other imposed some limits on the accommodation by the Jesuits. It is indeed remarkable that the Jesuits apparently were not able to accommodate themselves to certain aspects of Chinese culture because they were too difficult to master or were too different from the Euro pean background. Here one touches on aspects of Jesuit corporate culture in Europe and many parts of the world that were not put into practice in China.The clearest example is that of schools and education. Despite their hope to replace the subject-matter of the Chinese exams by Aristotelian philosophy, the Jesuits were never able to influence the well-established Chinese education system. There were also aspects that did not belong to their corporate culture, but that were also too sophisticated to learn or to adopt. In the field of arts, one usually cites the successful adaptation of Jesuit painters like Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766), but there is hardly any adoption of, or interest in, Chinese calligraphy.Yet, every member of the educated Chinese elite spent long hours when they were young learning calligraphy, and quite a few continued to practise it every day of their lives. Although the Jesuits’ effort was directed at this elite, in their copious writings there is ha rdly any indication that the Jesuits appreciated the aesthetic dimension of calligraphy and the pivotal role that it played in Chinese culture. [16] In the field of Chinese customs, Ricci and his fellow-Jesuits found it impossible to let their finger nails grow very long, as was the custom among the Chinese literati. 17] These are negative examples of influence that clearly show how Chinese culture imposed limits on accommodation. 2. The propagation ‘from the top’ is a second field in which the role of the Other can be amply shown. First it should be pointed out that the motive of Ricci’s ‘ascent to Beijing’[18] was not necessarily the conversion of the Emperor. The initial objective of Ricci, as expressed in his Della entrata, was not to reach Beijing, but just to have a residence on the mainland.It was because of the many difficulties Jesuits encountered in obtaining permission to enter China and in establishing a permanent residence there that the y gradually made a plan to go to Beijing in order to obtain the support of the ‘King of China’. [19] In this move to Beijing they largely depended on the elite. [20] There certainly were proactive or planned decisions by Ricci and his companions: they preferred the centre to the periphery and they chose to live in a city rather than in the countryside. ‘Centre’ meant the administrative centre, the place with a higher concentration of magistrates and literati.Thus they preferred Zhaoqing to Canton, because the Governor was residing in Zhaoqing, and Canton was only second choice. [21] The choice of the city was quite obviously connected with the choice of the centre. But these proactive or planned decisions by Ricci should be supplemented by two reactive or guided decisions, which were as important if not more important: many movements were arranged through personal relationships (guanxi) and a number of residences were established because the Jesuits were ex pelled from or not allowed to live in certain places.In both of these decisions the Other played a key role. The concept of guanxi or relationships is central to any understanding of Chinese social structures. It denotes an essential part of network-building within Chinese social life. The many difficulties encountered by Ricci and his companions in trying to establish a residence in various cities are often attributed to the fact that they were foreigners. While this is certainly true, the Jesuits also lacked the necessary guanxi to secure the social resources needed for their goals.They lacked common attributes: they could not refer to a common kinship, locality, religion or examination experience. Chinese society very quickly made the Jesuits aware of the importance of this network building and the originality of Ricci is to have understood it. It took the Jesuits a long time, but after more than ten years they succeeded in acquiring some ‘attributes’. The two most i mportant were their behaving like Chinese literati, and subsequently, the establishment of a network based on common Christian rituals.The role of the Other mediated by guanxi became very important in the move from the south to the north of the country and the establishment of new mission posts, and the Jesuits’ decisions were taken in response to the initiative or circumstances of these guanxi. The case of Michele Ruggieri travelling to Shaoxing (Zhejiang) is a fine example of this reactive or guided decision-making. [22] He was not travelling to Shaoxing because of a planned decision on his part, but rather because he had a guanxi who happened to be travelling to Shaoxing and who wanted to take Ruggieri with him.Another pattern was closely linked to this one. Chinese converts would settle in a new place (or return to their place of origin), expand the network of believers, and then invite a missionary. This pattern became more common as the community of believers increased and came to include some converts of higher social standing (especially after 1600). Here some structures of Chinese administrative life played an important role. Like other literati, Christian literati changed offices regularly (in principle every three years), or returned to their native towns. Their moves determined those of the missionaries.Another way of establishing a community in a given city was also a reaction to decisions made by others: Jesuits decided to settle in one place because they were not allowed to settle in the place of their original choice. In some cases this was even linked to direct expulsion. 3. The use of science in the service of the propagation of faith too was largely determined by the Other, as can be shown in the writings of the Jesuits and their converts. The first presentation of European science was made in the form of curiosities like a clock and prisms, with the result that at the beginning Jesuits were considered as alchemists.The first writings of the Jesuits, however, (i. e. what they wrote with only limited influence of the Other), were not scientific but entirely religious and catechetical in nature. It was due to the quest of Chinese scholars, who could not believe that educated scholars could come from far away, that Ricci engaged himself in composing a Chinese version of the world map he had in his room, in order to show where he came from. [23] A further step was the translation of works on mathematics and astronomy. Many scholars have pointed out that this translation took place in the particular context of Late Ming learning.If Chinese scholars were interested in the science brought by the Jesuits, it was because prior to their arrival Chinese literati had developed an interest in practical learning. The search for ‘solid learning’ or ‘concrete studies (shixue) was a reaction against some intuitionist movements originating from the Wang Yangming school in the late sixteenth century. According t o Wang Yangming (1472-1528), the principles for moral action were to be found entirely within the mind-and-heart (xin) and not outside.In the early seventeenth century, the influential intellectual and political movement of the Donglin thinkers re-established the importance of ‘things in the world’. Officials and scholars searched for concrete ways to save the country from decay. [24] It is this preceding quest that led to the unique interaction between the Chinese literati and the Jesuits. The Jesuits themselves were initially not much interested in translating mathematical works, but in response to the insistence of converts such as Xu Guangqi they again and again undertook this kind of time-consuming and long-lasting activity.Later, this insistence by the Chinese (converts) on practical learning was one of the reasons that prevented Jesuits from engaging in projects such as translating the Bible. Early missionaries such as Ricci had no particular advanced training in sciences (even if they were versed in them) and were not sent to spread scientific knowledge. Only later missionaries with a specific scientific training were sent to respond to the quest of the Other and to guarantee the protection of the Church by the Chinese Court.The acceptance of Western sciences by the Chinese thus confirms a generally agreed-upon interpretation of cultural exchange: when a foreign element is accepted relatively easily by a culture into which it has been introduced, that acceptance is owing to the presence of some internal disposition or movement to accept the new element. What is true in the field of the sciences is true also with respect to the moral teachings of the Jesuits, which were accepted because they fitted the quest of the Donglin thinkers for a heteronomous morality.Moreover, the large-scale translation and publication of Western writings was possible only because the Late Ming had a very developed system of (private) publishing and printing. Thus Jesuits did not have to introduce the printing press. Moreover, by contrast with Europe, there was no pre-printing censorship in China. As a result, the Chinese context enabled the Jesuits fully to put into practice their ‘Apostolate through Books’[25] and freely to express their ideas. 4. Tolerance towards Confucian rites. Here too the cultural imperative of the Other played a determining role (as it did not in Japan).Because of the power of Confucianism as a diffused religion, Christianity, just like Buddhism, Judaism and other marginal religions, had to accept the state orthodoxy and the ritual traditions of Confucianism. The repeated and public rejection of the rites approved by the State (and listed in the Official ‘Canon of Sacrifices’) would have caused the missionaries to be labelled ‘heterodox’ and to be rejected (as happened later to missionaries and papal delegations on several occasions during the Rites Controversy).Yet, during the initial years of the Ricci period there was a whole evolution in their attitude, which became more tolerant due to the presence of the Other. This can clearly be observed from the attitude of the missionaries towards funerals, which were and still are the most important ritual of passage in China. [26] In the beginning, the Jesuits were hardly aware that the importance of funeral rites in China would have consequences for themselves.For instance, when Antonio de Almeida (1557-1591), died in Shaozhou (Guangdong), the Chinese could not understand why Ricci and his companions did not wear a mourning garb. The Jesuits, Ricci says, explained that ‘we religious, when we enter into religion, are as though dead to the world, and therefore we do not make such a thing of this fate. ’ Thus the Jesuits did not accommodate to local customs, except for purchasing a first-class coffin, ‘in order to show to the Chinese the quality of the Fathers, because herein they demonstrate their way of honouring the dead. The major reason for buying a coffin, however, according to Ricci’s explanation, was that they could not bury de Almeida in a church, as would have been done in Europe and the Jesuits did not want to follow the Chinese practice of burying him ‘on a hill far away from the house. ’ Subsequently the coffin was kept in their residence for two years until he was buried in Macao. [27] As far as the specific funerary rituals are concerned, in these early years the Jesuits adopted an approach that can be qualified as purist concerning the Christian tradition and exclusivist with regard to the Chinese traditions.In general, Ricci and his fellow Jesuits were less tolerant in the early stages of their missionary activities than later, though in doing so they did not adhere to a specific regulation. If death occurred, the Jesuits’ priority was to bury the deceased – Chinese Christian or foreign missionary – according to C hristian rites. There was little intention towards accommodation to local – usually Confucian – customs. The abstention from local rites by Christians was seen by the Jesuits as a sign helping to strengthen and spread the Christian faith.Only gradually were some Chinese funerary customs accepted. This happened first through the initiative of the Chinese themselves and was largely due to the network in which the deceased Jesuit or Christian had been involved. As long as this network was very small, the funeral could be limited to an exclusively Christian ceremony. When this network was larger, however, the chances of interaction with Chinese funeral practices increased. It is typical for funerals to be such an ‘open’ ritual.For instance, when the Jesuit Joao Soerio died in Nanchang in 1607, his fellow Jesuits did ‘not give expression to their sentiments, as was usual in China,’ because ‘it did not correspond to our profession. ’ Ye t their friends, dressed in mourning, came to their house to condole with them. These Chinese friends installed a bier and covered it as if his body was there. ‘They made four genuflections, and touched each time with their head the ground. ’ Many are said to have mourned the death of this Jesuit in this traditional way. 28] As the Christian communities continued to grow, the interaction with local rituals increased as well. The death of Matteo Ricci in Beijing in 1610 was a turning point in some ways, because his funeral and burial were the cause of the Jesuits themselves becoming involved in more Chinese funerary customs. The first critical step was the decision about his burial place. At the initiative of a Christian convert, the Jesuits asked the Chinese emperor to offer an appropriate burial ground. This burial in the mainland was contrary to the practice of the burials of Jesuits in Macao until then.Meanwhile, Ricci’s corpse was kept in a traditional Chines e coffin. While some Chinese practices, such as the habit of condolence, were accepted, others, such as the funeral procession, were only applied in a limited way, because the Chinese procession was considered to resemble an act of ‘triumph’ and did not conform to Jesuit ideals of poverty and modesty. On the day of the burial itself, 1 November 1611, all the regular Christian ceremonies were celebrated: the recitation of the Office of the Dead, the funeral Mass, an ecclesiastical procession, and the prayers at the tomb in front of a painting of Christ.But in the end, there were also some Chinese rites: ‘Many days afterwards gentile friends came flocking in to perform their usual rites for the deceased. ’[29] Thus it was the presence of the Chinese that brought gradual change in the hesitant approach by the missionaries. As Johannes Bettray has shown, the Jesuits missionaries were, after thirty years of presence in China, apparently allowing the performance of these particular local customs. [30] Conclusion Looking at Ricci, one can discern several characteristics that can be labelled the ‘Ricci method’.However, this method has too often been presented as the result of the proactive Self, at the neglect of the influence of the Chinese Other. I have tried to show that the role of the Other in the formation of Ricci’s identity is certainly as important as the activity of Ricci’s Self. Though Ricci might have reacted in ways other than he did, in all cases the Other played a decisive role in the reactions he showed. One could even argue that the Other made it possible for Ricci to become who he became. Without the Other, this would not have been possible.

Descartes And The Material World

If you can’t, does it follow that Descartes’ method of doubt is uselessIt is very difficult to know for certain if the material world exists or not because we are dealing with metaphysical philosophy. Metaphysical philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with the basic nature of reality. Its aim is to give a systematic account of the world and the principles that govern it Rene Descartes, a French philosopher during the 17th century came up with many arguments concerning existence. Descartes is called a dualist because he claimed that the world consists of two basic substances, matter and spirit. Matter is the physical universe, of which our bodies are a part. The human mind, or spirit, interacts with the body but can, in theory, exist without it, Descartes argued. Descartes wrote pieces of writing known as The Six Meditations. During these meditations he attempted to rule out anything that can be doubtful. So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find each of them at least some reason for doubt, he commented. The results of these meditations will be discussed in detail. Although Descartes is very influential to modern philosophy, it came with a price. Many philosophers attacked Descartes arguments critically. One example where Descartes arguments have been attacked is in the book by John Cottingham. These arguments will be discussed further in this essay. In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes first considered the strongest reasons that might be used to show that he could never be certain of anything. He clarifies that everything that humans accept as true have been acquired from the senses or through the senses. Although our senses are our most trustworthy friend, they tend to deceive us from time to time. It is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once , Descartes argues. In mentally sane beings, the best example where our senses may have deceived us is in our dreams. When we dream, we rarely know we are actually dreaming. So in turn, while dreaming, we are perceived with a false reality. These arguments included the idea that perhaps we might be dreaming, so that nothing we seem to perceive is real. There are though universal laws in which even if our physical existence is doubted still exist. For example, Mathematics and Geometry would still exist because it does not rely on matter. Two plus two would still equal four as well as the fact that a square will always have four sides. Back to the meditation, Descartes reflected that perhaps God or some evil demon was constantly tricking his mind, causing him to believe what was false. Yet, it cannot be God because according to Descartes, God is supremely good. Descartes commences the Second meditation saying, Anything of the slightest doubt I will set aside just as if I had found it to be wholly false. In another words, he will attempt to disregard anything that can be categorised as doubtful. One thing, Descartes argues can exist without doubt, ones existence. Nothing can make him doubt that. Descartes then introduced the famous Latin phrase cogito ergo sum, which means I think, therefore I am. Analysing Descartes arguments, it is clear that one can doubt the existence of a physical world. Descartes gives the example of a piece of wax. When he first perceives the wax, it is hard, has a certain colour, shape and other qualities. However when he puts that same wax next to the fire all its primary and secondary qualities change. It is not hard anymore; colour, shape and other qualities have changed. Nevertheless we still know that it is the same wax before we put it next to the fire. Our mind can understand that but our senses cannot. Many philosophers, on the other hand, disagree with Descartes. For example, the main objection to Descartes theories is the phrase, See to believe. One cannot assume something without actually experiencing it for themselves. In the case of the evil demon, evidence is needed to prove that it actually exists. If there were even the slightest evidence, maybe its existence can be argued upon but the truth is that there is no proof that this demon exists (although physical proof is sometimes not sufficient, for example, in the case of God). If there is a deception, there must be some way to know whether one has been deceived. Otherwise the word deception doesnt distinguish anything from anything else. For example, walking in the desert, one sees water but getting closer to it, it disappears and found out its only a mirage. He/she has found out that he/she has been deceived. In the case of the evil demon, there is no proof that we are being tricked, as mentioned before. As written earlier, Descartes believed that existence may be just a dream but again many believe it is very doubtful. Many believe that dreams are just a reflection of real life. In another words, we dream what we have experienced when awake. Dreams also lack the massiveness and the tremendous degree of internal co-herence that waking-life experiences rather than dreams. In another words, dreams lack things such as laws of gravity and realness that are associated with real life. John Cottingham criticises Descartes in many ways. For example, Descartes points out that the reliability of the intellect is much greater than that of the senses. The question is how the intellect can doubt the senses if we take in our information from our senses and only our senses. Another objection is that from the fact that we are thinking does not seem to be entirely certain that we exist. For in order to be certain that one is thinking one must know what thought or thinking actually is as well as what our existence is. All in all, Descartes work is very influential to modern philosophy. As John Stuart Mill once said, in an argument no one is 100% correct or incorrect, so there it would be unwise to discard anyones opinion. For all humans know, Descartes may be wrong or not but his method of doubt is definitely not useless. In another words, in light of these arguments, it seems that the most plausible position is to keep an open mind.

Reflection Essay Sample on the Book Tuesdays with Morrie

Reflection Essay Sample on the Book Tuesdays with Morrie The reflection essay designates the type of work that puts into perspective analysis of the writer’s evaluation of the particular text. Moreover, it implies the involvement of personal experience, which provides an overall understanding of the specific topic. In some cases, it is possible to omit the provision of individual’s experience as the assignment may focus only on the evaluation of the writer’s opinion. In this case, the writer reflects the effective and ineffective parts of the essay. Moreover, he/she explains why the narrator’s point of view deserves consideration. Therefore, the reflection essay sample demonstrates the involvement of value judgments for the description of the particular case and provides a balanced evaluation of the targeted source. ‘Transcendent Ideas in Tuesdays with Morrie’ Essay Sample The book Tuesdays with Morrie is one of the most bestselling novels in the USA. The narration demonstrates the conversation between the professor and his former student Mitch that is listed in the set of the postulates. Morrie drives the reader’s attention to the indeed significant matters in the individual’s life. His critique of the contemporary culture and the predominance of money over the mind forces Mitch to reconsider vital values and ponder over his future. Hence, the essay reflects on such Morrie’s postulates as pity for oneself, regrets, emotions, family, money, and modern culture. Pity for Oneself Indisputably, the opinion of the surrounding society plays a significant role in the development of the individual’s self-esteem. However, it is essential to mention that the personal attitude towards himself/herself, as well as the attitude to the upcoming issues, designate the background for the formulation of the self-evaluation. Morrie signifies that the paralysis deprives him of personal independence, as he needs constant assistance from the others (Albom 36). Personally, the severe disease alters his world-view and overall perception of the familiar matters. However, he mentions that the pity for oneself deepens the depression, wastes time and leads to self-withdrawal (Albom 36). It is possible to cry but not to concentrate on important issues as it breaches the inner balance. Regarding own experience of the unjust occurrence, the pity for oneself does not provide the solution of the problem as the emotions take over rational thinking. The case of the mentioned reward as sists in the realization of the early preserved plans as another individual can take advantage of them and succeed. Therefore, the pity for oneself leads to a self-withdrawal as it breaches the rational comprehension of the situation and complicates the rendering of the possible solutions. Regrets Usually, the feeling of regret intertwines the pity for oneself as it blurs the clearness of mind with the fixed ideas of the possible solutions to the issues or situations of the past. For example, Morrie recollects the conflict with a friend who did not support him in the critical moments of life. Later when that friend wanted to excuse and maintain the contact, the protagonist refused to do it. Consequently, the man dies and Morrie regrets that he did not forgive that person (Albom 91). The feeling of regret designates the barrier between the past and present as memories restrain a person from the acceptance of the consequences of the particular situation. For instance, in the novel, the personal initiative of the main character to take part in the competition designated the reason for the upcoming conflict. The mentioned friend excused for the implementation of the idea and wanted to take the deserved reward. In that case, forgiveness represents the most powerful tool to overcome the feeling of regret. Moreover, the state of perception motivates to develop personal prudence towards trust. Hence, the sorrows do not solve the upcoming issues. On the contrary, they blur personal consciousness with the negative emotions, and in some cases, impose the individual with the feeling of guilt. It is essential to use the mental power of regrets for the rational comprehension of the issue and elaboration of the possible ways of its solution. Emotions On the other hand, the community tends to underestimate the influence of emotions on the formation of the world-view and perception of reality. Morrie signifies that the inner intention to pity himself and regret the lost physical abilities are connected with the dominance of the negative emotions over his mind (Albom 60). On the other hand, the feelings related to the success lead to the predominance of the positive emotions over the rationalism. Personally, it is possible to agree with Morrie’s opinion as emotions impose individual with the illusion of happiness or grief that alienates the person from the rational comprehension of the particular situation. In this case, Morrie suggests people let the feelings pass by and not to concentrate on the specific case that can cause emotional overload (Albom 59). For example, the victory in the competition imposed a hypothetical individual with the feeling of the predominance over the others. However, in two months this person might be defeated, and it can lead to regrets. In this case, it is possible to use Morrie’s lesson of letting the emotions pass by. The victory can be regarded only as a source of motivation but not arrogance. Hence, it is essential to take control of emotions. Otherwise, they will breach the rational thinking and harden the usual perception of reality. Family Regarding the rapid development of the world, the process of the urbanization provides an individual with a vast amount of possibilities. However, the accomplishment of the planned goals imposes a person with the loads of obstacles that represent complications in the success achievement. According to Morrie, family designates the most powerful social construct for the formulation of the future generation (Albom 53). The mentioned social group can be regarded as a source of love, care, and encouragement that alleviates the overcoming of real-life obstacles. Moreover, he adds that without a family the obtaining of the assistance would be a great challenge for him (Albom 54). These words are worth consideration as the concept of the family indeed correlates with the love that assists in the healing of any wound. Regarding personal experience, parental support played a significant role during my graduation. After three years of studies, I already gave up and was afraid I would not cope w ith my diploma. However, their care and encouragement raised my spirit, and I have succeeded with the graduation paper. Therefore, the family designates the sociocultural construct, which contributes to the formulation of the decent member of the community and assists in the overcoming of the hurdles. Money Nowadays, urbanization creates possibilities for the financial development of almost every individual. However, society makes a shift from the moral virtues to the material ones that demonstrates great concern for the citizens as they suffer alienation. Morrie states that culture imposes an individual with the false necessities that do not lead to spiritual satisfaction as the abundance of the necessary goods deepens the interpersonal gap (Albom 69). He mentions that it is essential to share moral virtues with others (Albom 70). That opinion forces us to over-think the system of values of the contemporary world. Providing people with moral support plays a significant role in the development of relationships as it leads to the satisfaction of personal acceptance. Money cannot bring comfort and encourage. On the contrary, they bring to people feelings of fear and greed. While fear leads to the mistrust towards the surrounding people, the greed forces to earn more and more in order to predominate over the others. Hence, it is essential to reduce the power of money over the individual’s mind, as it does not provide the spiritual satisfaction. Moreover, it erodes the soul of a person instilling it with greed and fear. In this case, the best possible solution is the provision of the person with the spiritual support that designates his or her understanding and acceptance. Culture Year after year, the government accompanied by mass media shapes public culture. The culture of the US population leads to personal alienation as it puts into the perspective the financial security instead of the development of the national spirit based on the predominance of peace and equality. Morrie identifies that the government utilizes the spiritual threat that instills the individual sub-consciousness with the idea of money predominance (Albom 85). From their perspective, people are scared of being fired and determine the fundamental reason for letting others down. However, such a savage behavior of the survival of the strongest leads to the undermining of the cohesion of society. For instance, some time ago I was framed as a group mate took advantage of my project, copied it and got a better grade. When I asked him to explain his behavior, he replied that only the strongest should survive. In this case, the culture develops the attitude of hostility and mistrust that breaches the cannons of the human relationship. Therefore, culture puts into perspective a task to impose people with the false dictation of money. However, the mentioned intention breaches the rational thinking and develops the herd instinct to earn more than others. Unfortunately, the perspective of the money predominance erodes the functioning of society by excavating the roots of basic communication. The book of Mitch Albom Tuesdays with Morrie represents a set of postulates for the proper spiritual development of every individual. In our lives, the concept of pity for oneself intertwines with the regrets that undermine rational thinking. On the other hand, the government is imposing the society with the false culture of the money predominance that leads to the alienation of the individual and breaches the moral virtues and the cannons of communication. Finally, the family as the most significant social construct provides a person with love and care that serves as the most potent tool for the overcoming of the inevitable obstacles and negative issues. The provided reflection essay sample demonstrates the involvement of the personal experience towards the evaluation of the narrator’s opinions. The implication of the individual examples reveals the points of the author’s view that aim the reader to ponder over the significance of the message. The demonstrated essay put into perspective the assistance to the writer for accepting a challenge and write a decent reflection on the particular reflection essay topic. Use the sample to alleviate the work on this type of essay. Work Cited Albom, Mitch. Tuesdays with Morrie. Doubleday Company, Incorporated, 1997.

Time Management Strategies for Students

Time Management Strategies for Students Time Management Strategies for Students How Not to Let Game of Thrones  Fail Your Exams It’s 9 pm and you got a fresh new season of Game of Thrones to watch! But, first you promise yourself only 1 episode. Half way through the video you are hooked and by the time it ends, you throw your hands in despair, John Snow and the White Walkers! I have got to know what happens next! Soon enough you end up watching the entire series. Whew †¦ That was one hell of a season. You suddenly notice its morning, and remember you have a Math exam just in two hours! Two hours!? It’s all your fault, Starks and Lannisters! It’s a matter of urgency and you can’t let Game of Thrones fail your exams! Well, let’s identify the problem. The challenge you face is poor time management. Time management is simply planning, prioritizing, delegating, controlling, understanding yourself and identifying your problematic habits. Once you know how to manage time you will be surprised how easily you can accomplish a lot of activities in only 24 hours! Planning You need to make a comprehensive plan besides a simple to-do list. Your plan should include how you target to carry out an effective time management routine. Before that find free online resources, read article, books and keep on changing your plan when necessary. Prioritizing Divide your work into four main areas: Urgent Put all the urgent work in this area, for instance, upcoming exams, assignments or quiz. Moreover, allocate the most of your time in this zone. Plan to do This is perhaps the most essential part but you have to give it the second most importance. This part usually includes work that matters to you. For instance, researching or networking with other student, scheduling and planning other work related activities. Reject Explain Put here work that causes useless distractions such as email notification or requests from others. Resist and Cease You must try to spend the least amount of time for work that involves in this region such as meaningless doodles, watching Game of Thrones marathon, or listening to songs. Delegating First, take the free delegation review form to see how good you are in this matter. Second, follow these simple steps in a sequent manner: Define the task Select the individual or team for the assignment Provide resources Delegate the task to the individual or team Make a feedback system Review Controlling You have an effective plan or a routine. What happens when you fail to abide by it? You end up letting Game of thrones fail your exams all over again! You must practice your routine and use your plan in a controlled manner until you are accustomed to it. Understanding yourself Understand yourself and the conditions you work best in. Ask yourself these questions:- Do I study better under pressure? Do I study better in a calm or a busy environment? Which time of the day am I most productive? Identifying problematic habits Everyone has some problematic habits such as procrastinating, checking the phone every 5 min, chatting with friends while working, taking a break every now and then and so forth. You must identify all the awkward habits in order to address these matters as soon as possible. See? Time management is not an impossible task. Once you apply this knowledge as well as other resources available you can easily manage your time and if you are smart enough you might even be successful at acing exams that you claim you have no time to study for! Our term  paper writing service can be very useful for you during your exams in college and university.

The impact of internet payment systems upon the retail sector Essay

The impact of internet payment systems upon the retail sector - Essay Example One of the most classical and beneficial advancements of the internet, that has been critically beneficial for growing cross-border trade and commerce, has been the internet payment system or e-trading concept; some other titles for the same are e-shopping, e-business, e-marketing – where ‘e’ simply implies conducting transactions via electronic medium. Classically, ‘shopping’ or ‘purchases’ took place face-to-face i.e. purchase against cash. With the advancements of the banking system, some purchases moved against the cheque system, and then against credit cards – plastic money. However, the arrival of the ‘e’ age, it became critical to have a reliable source of payments since purchases technically took place over the internet. Such situation gave birth to the need of a medium of payment other than credit and debit cards. Subsequently, there came third-party payment systems such as PayPal, Bank-transfers, Alert-Pay, E -Gold, etc. With the advancements of ‘e’ purchases, such third-party systems have assisted in providing enhanced sales. The Impact of Internet Payment System on Retail Sector The retail sector has significantly benefited from the advent and advancements of the internet payment system. In particular, as the said system has eased the process of e-shopping with added security features. Initially, this turned out to be a huge competitive edge for the smaller retailers as they embedded e-shopping along with internet payment systems, providing the ease of shopping from home comfort to the customers, pushing the competing bigger names to adapt the same strategy. However, initially, the advantages of this internet payment system were not known to be gone as far as they are today. In the initial phase, it was just assumed to provide comfort and ease of shopping, reducing the cost of selling for the seller, increasing margins, reducing the waiting-line phenomenon to a higher degr ee. Today, the cross-functional advancement of the MIS has led the firms into realizing the long-run potential of the various aspects of such payment systems. Prior to such advancements, the concept of home delivery and cash-on-delivery prevailed, which was not very encouraged by the retailers across the world in all sectors and industries. Fake order placements and false addressing were common issues; but internet based payment systems have reduced such issues to a much greater extent, and also made the consumer market much more mature. As a buyer now knows that internet based payment system reveals complete identity and contact information, and with IP tracking facility over the internet, there are lesser chances of individuals involving themselves in such or similar activities. The first and foremost advantage of the internet payment system is the ease of marketing for the marketers; marketers rely solely on the information and crave for reliable and authentic sources of informat ion. When purchases are made through paper money, the buyer remains unknown to the seller. However, when plastic money and internet payment systems are involved, the buyer no more remains anonymous; rather the buyer along with the buying habits and practices becomes visible to the marketer, and thus, marketers can develop groups and strata and segments to ensure that they target the right audience with the right combination of products and services. When it comes to e-marketing, marketers need as accurate of a data as possible, primarily due to the fact that e-marketing relies heavily on reaching the right customer –

Movie review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Movie Review Example It was considered to be the biggest spill in the history of the United States. Despite of its devastating effects, the media had paid little attention to it and many do not know about the tragedy. The movie caught the attention of the reviewer because of its disturbing content. It was really dangerous to have millions of gallons of water to contain uranium which is an active element. Once exposed to it, mutations and illnesses come upon the organisms and some even die quickly. If it would happen again in other parts of the world, the people in that locality may not be prepared so it is very important to actually have the movie to be disseminated to inform people about the dangers of nuclear energy and its possible leakage. Having documentary films like The River that Harms is necessary to increase the awareness of the public about the importance of safety and environment. After all, once such kind of danger occurs, many will be